Review of seepage physical models in oil and gas reservoirs

Understanding multiphase seepage behavior in porous media of oil and gas reservoirs is crucial for optimizing development strategies, enhancing recovery efficiency, and improving project economics. Physical simulation models, scaled-down replicas of reservoir conditions, deliver direct insights into petrophysical parameters and dynamic flow processes. This review systematically classified seepage physical models into one-dimensional (1D), two-dimensional (2D), and three-dimensional (3D) models, further delineated by structure, function, and application structure, function, and application. 1D models include sand-packed pipes, artificial cores, and natural cores models. 2D models encompass parallel plate, etched network, core slice, and particle packing models. 3D models comprise sand-packed, large-scale core, and visual models. A comprehensive discussion and systematic evaluation of these models were conducted, focusing on their advantages, limitations, error sources, and applicability. The results demonstrate that 1D models offer operational simplicity, high temperature and pressure resistance, and well-established fabrication techniques. However, they lack spatial representativeness, scaling similarity, and the capacity to capture heterogeneity. 2D models exhibit superior structural flexibility, functional diversity, and direct visualization capabilities, but cannot simulate complex 3D flow or replicate high temperature and pressure resistance conditions. 3D models minimize scaling effects, reliably simulate macroscopic flow dynamics, and withstand extreme conditions, but suffer from complex operation, prolonged experimental durations, and high cost. Given the flexibility and versatility, this paper further comprehensively reviews various types of 2D models, compares their visualization performance, representativeness, temperature and pressure resistance, applications, and constraints, and proposes potential refinements. Typical case studies illustrate practical implementations to promote the translation of theoretical research into field practice and to strengthen the connection between theory and application. Furthermore, we establish how numerical simulation and artificial intelligence transcend the limitations of physical models. This review provides a comprehensive, practical, and forward-looking reference for the selection, design, and application of physical seepage models in oil and gas reservoir studies.