Observational evidence highlights the spatial divergence of vegetation changes in altering land surface energy balance over the Three-North region in China in summer

• The Three-North region has undergone a substantial increase in vegetation greenness. • The surface net radiation (R n ) increased significantly, dominated by surface net shortwave radiation (R sn ), and has primarily been redistributed to latent heat fluxes (LE). • Vegetation changes modify the land surface energy balance with spatial divergence, primarily driven by agricultural management practices and meteorological forces in the context of global warming. In recent decades, the Three-North region (northeastern, northwestern, and north China), recognized as one of the most vulnerable regions in China, has experienced significant vegetation changes through large-scale ecosystem projects, most notably the Three-North Shelter Forest Program (TNSFP). Changes in vegetation can regulate the local or regional climate, but few efforts have been made to figure out the underlying mechanisms from the perspective of land surface energy balance. To elucidate the vegetation-energy balance interactions encompassing both radiative and non-radiative processes, the long-term observational evidence (1983–2018) provided by the remotely sensed products in summer was derived over the TNSFP planning region. This study revealed a substantial increase in vegetation greenness, mainly characterized by cropland expansion, conversions between cropland and grassland, and forest gain. The surface net radiation (R n ) increased significantly with a rate of 0.20 W/m 2 per year, dominated by the enhanced surface net shortwave radiation (SR) (0.23 W/m 2 per year), most occurring in the greener areas. Consequently, the increased R n has been largely redistributed into latent heat fluxes (LE), rising at 0.35 W/m 2 per year. Spatial discrepancies in vegetation altering the surface energy balance, primarily driven by agricultural management practices and meteorological forces under the context of global warming, have been observed. In the western study region, irrigated cropland expansion has triggered a more pronounced and sensitive biophysical response, amplifying surface energy balance changes. Comparatively, the middle of the region, marked by expanded grassland and cropland, exhibited a more moderate effect. Meanwhile, the eastern study region showed less significant changes, offset by the reduced precipitation linked to a weakened summer monsoon. These findings highlight the critical role of vegetation coverage and types, and regional climate in shaping surface energy dynamics. They emphasize the need to integrate these factors into ecological restoration strategies, offering key insights for climate adaptation policies in semi-arid and arid environments.