Ensemble-based quantum token protocol benchmarked on IBM quantum processors

Abstract Quantum tokens envision to store unclonable quantum states in a physical device, with the goal of being used for personal authentication protocols, as required by banks. Still, the experimental realization of such devices faces many technical challenges, which can be partially mitigated using ensembles instead of single qubits. In this work, we thus propose an ensemble-based quantum token protocol, describing it through a simple yet general model based on a quantum mechanical observable. The protocol is benchmarked on five IBM quantum processors and a general hacker attack scenario is analyzed, in which the attacker attempts to read the bank token and forge a fake one, based on the information gained from this measurement. We experimentally demonstrate that the probability that the bank erroneously accepts a forged coin composed of multiple tokens can reach values below 10 −22 , while the probability that the bank accepts its own coin is above 0.999. The overall security of the protocol is therefore demonstrated within a hardware-agnostic framework, confirming the practical viability of the protocol in arbitrary quantum systems and thus paving the way for future applications with different ensembles of qubits, such as color center defects in solids.