Government Leadership and Market Participation: A Collaborative Development Model for the Cultural Ecosystem Services of Nature Reserves

Abstract Natural protected areas possess abundant cultural ecosystem services (CESs), requiring integrated efforts from both government and market for development; however, disagreements and debates regarding respective development boundaries are ongoing. This study establishes a theoretical framework for observation and analysis using protected areas in state-owned forest regions of NE China as a case study. Data were collected from multiple stakeholders. The research results show the following. (1) Protected areas in NE China’s state-owned forests contain at least five types of CES. Among these, scientific research (mean = 3.877), education (mean = 3.907), and psychological benefits (mean = 3.930) were rated higher than spiritual values (mean = 2.908) and recreation (mean = 2.898). (2) Government intervention and market demand not only directly improve the quality and efficiency of CES development but also leverage the foundational advantages of resource endowment and development level to indirectly enhance CES outcomes. (3) In the development of CES in protected areas, the government focuses on ecological conservation and restoration, whereas the market prioritizes economic value. This study constructs a framework for understanding the complex causal relationships between CES development approaches and their effectiveness. It also clarifies the development boundaries between government and market roles in protected areas.