Between Impartiality and Partiality: The Hongwu Emperor’s Attitude toward the Conflict between Dai Viet and Champa

This study aims to demonstrate that the Hongwu Emperor’s approach toward Dai Viet and Champa was not governed by abstract ideals, but rather adapted in accordance with the concrete realities he confronted. Many studies have assessed the Hongwu Emperor as treating neighboring countries equally and fairly, and as striving to maintain peace. It is often argued that he maintained this attitude consistently throughout his reign. On this basis, scholars have interpreted his approach to the ongoing conflict between Dai Viet and Champa as one of strict neutrality. However, this article challenges that assessment by analyzing not only the diplomatic communications sent to the two countries but also the internal instructions the emperor issued to Ming administrative departments. These internal documents reveal that the Hongwu Emperor blamed Dai Viet for provoking Champa’s military actions. The claim that he consistently upheld strict impartiality appears valid only within the context of diplomatically embellished documents. Moreover, the Hongwu Emperor’s attitude was not consistent throughout his reign. Depending on the circumstances and strategic needs, he sometimes informed Dai Viet of Champa’s preparations for war, while at other times he urged Champa to restrain its offensives. The Hongwu Emperor actively took advantage of the ongoing conflict and military confrontations between the two countries. Ming China’s southwestern frontier bordered Dai Viet, and in that region, effective imperial control was difficult to establish through administrative means alone. Territorial disputes between Ming and Dai Viet arose along this unstable border. However, to maintain a foothold in the area, the Ming court relied on material support from Dai Viet. In this context, the tension between Champa and Dai Viet was strategically exploited to pressure Dai Viet and thereby extract concessions beneficial to the Ming. The Hongwu Emperor outwardly upheld fairness and neutrality as diplomatic ideals, but in practice he displayed an attitude that oscillated between impartiality and partiality.