Calcaneal Evidence of Crucifixion: A Skeletal Analysis

Crucifixion is an execution method which is a deliberately cruel and degrading form of punishment. This method of execution was popularized during the height of the Roman Empire and still utilized in the 20th century in concentration camps during World War II. While several historical accounts describe in detail the horrors of crucifixion, including the famed Spartacus rebellion where 6000 people were crucified along the main road from Capua to Rome, there has been little physical evidence in the way of paleopathology recovered throughout the ages to verify its existence. The few examples of evidence unearthed from excavation sites in Israel, Italy, and the United Kingdom are primarily heel bones (calcanei) with nails embedded in them provide concrete evidence to support its occurrence. Skeletal analysis of these individuals confirms what true crucifixion actually was like and the variety of methods used which differ from artistic renderings often seen in the modern era. While there remains debate regarding the true cause of death related to crucifixion practices, one constant factor is the nailing of the feet to a wooden structure. The durability of the calcaneal bones despite enduring trauma and decomposition has provided modern scholars an accurate albeit horrifying glimpse into the past. The trauma found in the calcanei along with other skeletal indications reveal the likely social status of these victims who endured crucifixion in different geographical regions throughout the Roman empire. This article explores the cross-section of history and archaeology with an emphasis on the bones of the feet.