Intersecting Pathways of Inflammation, Oxidative Stress, and Atherogenesis in the Evaluation of CKD: Emerging Biomarkers PCSK9, EPHX2, AOPPs, and TBARSs

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a multifactorial disorder increasingly recognized as a systemic condition marked by persistent inflammation, oxidative stress, dyslipidemia, and endothelial dysfunction. Diabetic nephropathy, a leading cause of CKD, amplifies cardiovascular risk through intertwined mechanisms beyond traditional risk factors. This review synthesizes current evidence on the interplay between inflammation, oxidative stress, and atherosclerosis in CKD, with a special focus on emerging molecular biomarkers-PCSK9, EPHX2, AOPPs, and TBARSs-and their integration with clinical indices. These markers illuminate pathophysiological networks underlying CKD progression and cardiovascular complications, offering novel insights into risk stratification, disease monitoring, and targeted therapy. By exploring molecular and clinical intersections, this review underscores the potential of a personalized, biomarker-driven approach to CKD management.