The association between PM2.5, greenness (NDVI) and road noise exposures and the academic performance of state school pupils in England: a National Pupil Database study

Research suggests that exposure to air pollution, greenspace and noise may affect children's academic performance, however further large-scale, longitudinal evidence is needed. This study quantifies the relationship between PM_2.5 and children's academic performance while considering the effects of greenness and road noise using the National Pupil Database. 1,048,167 children starting state school in England at ages 4-5 years in 2005 and 2006 were followed for 12 years. Annual average environmental exposures at home and school were measured since the start of formal education up until each academic assessment. The associations of PM_2.5 with cohort-standardised Z-scores of academic performance at ages 4-5, 6-7, 10-11 and 15-16 years were investigated using multilevel mixed effects linear regression models controlling for greenness, road noise and other individual, school and areal characteristics. PM_2.5 was related to -0.055 (95 % CI: 0.064, -0.045) lower Z-scores per inter-quartile range (IQR, 2.08 μg/m³) exposure increase at ages 15-16 years, but not at other ages. Greenness was associated with 0.016 (95 % CI: 0.009, 0.022), 0.016 (95 % CI: 0.009, 0.024) and 0.035 (95 % CI: 0.029, 0.04) higher Z-scores at ages 6-7, 10-11 and 15-16 years, respectively, per IQR (0.1 NDVI) exposure increase. Road noise was related to -0.014 (95 % CI: 0.018, -0.01), -0.006 (95 % CI: 0.01, -0.003), -0.009 (95 % CI: 0.014, -0.005) and -0.008 (95 % CI: 0.012, -0.004) lower Z-scores at ages 4-5, 6-7, 10-11 and 15-16 years, respectively, per IQR (ages 4-5, 7.06 dB; 6-7, 6.81; 10-11, 6.56; 15-16, 6.32) exposure increase. This nation-wide study suggests that greater exposure to PM_2.5 and road noise are harmful to academic performance later in school and throughout school, respectively, while greenness exposure has beneficial impacts across most school age groups in this sample. Reducing PM_2.5 and road noise and increasing greenness around children's homes and schools may improve academic performance.