Evaluating the performance of NOMA-mMIMO and mmWave systems in foliage-attenuated environments: challenges and solutions

Abstract To enhance the efficiency of wireless networks, integrating Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA), Massive Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (mMIMO), and millimeter-wave (mmWave) technologies is a promising strategy for achieving superior communication capabilities. However, their real-world deployment faces substantial challenges, particularly due to environmental factors such as vegetation-induced attenuation, which severely impacts signal propagation at mmWave frequencies. This study presents a foliage-aware evaluation framework that incorporates ITU-recommended models to account for seasonal variations, tree-specific characteristics, and elevation angles, offering a realistic assessment of spectral efficiency degradation in NOMA-mMIMO and mmWave systems. While prior works often neglect key environmental aspects such as seasonality, tree species, and elevation angle, this study provides a simulation-based analysis specifically tailored to foliage-dense environments and proposes practical mitigation strategies, including dynamic power control, base station height optimization, small cell deployment, and the use of Intelligent Reflecting Surfaces (IRS) and Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) relays. The proposed framework serves as a realistic reference model for designing robust wireless networks in vegetation-rich outdoor scenarios.