Assessing soil water dynamics and wheat growth under different irrigation and planting strategies using HYDRUS-2D

ABSTRACT Wheat is crucial for global food security and India's economy. Efficient irrigation maximizes yields, especially during critical growth stages. This study examined spatiotemporal soil water dynamics in wheat during a 30-day period (45–75 days after sowing) and its critical growth phase. HYDRUS-2D evaluated seven strategies: raised beds with furrow irrigation (RB + FuI), conventional tillage with sprinkler (CT + SI) and flood irrigation (CT + FI), zero tillage with residue retention and sprinkler (ZTR + SI) and flood irrigation (ZTR + FI), and zero tillage with sprinkler (ZT + SI) and zero tillage with flood irrigation (ZT + FI). Raised beds and zero tillage with residue significantly improved saturated hydraulic conductivity, reduced bulk density, and enhanced root zone water retention compared with conventional tillage and zero tillage without residue. Residue and sprinkler irrigation (RB + FuI, CT + SI, ZTR + SI, and ZT + SI) promoted greater cumulative root water uptake than flood irrigation (CT + FI, ZTR + FI, and ZT + FI). Sprinkler irrigation also led to better root growth and higher root length density, especially in topsoil. Soil moisture varied, with CT + FI highest. Maximum drainage occurred in flood irrigation. This study suggests RB + FuI as promising for wheat in the mid-Indo-Gangetic Plains due to improved soil water dynamics, enhanced root development, and potentially higher yields.