Virgil's ubiquity: Virgilian texts on papyri, ostraca, writing tablets, graffiti, and dipinti, and the question of literacy in the Roman Empire

Abstract From the large number of quotations that survive in the vast and varied written documents of the Roman imperial period, it is evident that Virgil was the most popular poet, at least in the Latin-speaking western part of the Empire, where he played the same role as Homer in the Greek-speaking East. A notable aspect of Virgil's legacy, however, lies not merely in the sheer volume of quotations and allusions that have survived; rather, it is the remarkable versatility of his written mediums which include inscriptions painted or scratched upon walls, papyri, ostraca, writing tablets, and even scrawls on simple bowls. Furthermore, the scope of Virgil's literary influence extends beyond the confines of the privileged upper classes, as evidenced by his presence in the epitaphs of ordinary people, gladiatorial dressing rooms, or in barracks of distant garrisons. Additionally, his literary contributions have permeated diverse geographical areas, from Hadrian's Wall to Dura-Europos on the Euphrates. The present article explores the potential explanations for the phenomenon of Virgil's ‘ubiquity’.