Formation, change, and control of Ochratoxin A in wine

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin known for its nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic, and immunotoxic effects. The International Agency for Research on Cancer classifies it as a group 2B carcinogen, and it is widely found in wine. This review identifies <italic>Aspergillus carbonarius</italic> as the primary producer of OTA in wine, noting that contamination can occur at any stage of the vinification process. Specifically, OTA levels tend to increase during the pressing and maceration stages, while a reduction in OTA is observed during alcoholic and malolactic fermentation. The concentration of OTA in wine is predominantly influenced by the quality of the grape raw material and the vinification techniques employed. Various physicochemical and biological methods are utilized to mitigate OTA levels in wine, primarily by inhibiting the growth of <italic>Aspergillus carbonarius</italic> and by adsorbing or degrading the toxin itself. This paper examines the impacts of OTA control strategies on the color, organic acids, reducing sugars, antioxidant compounds, and volatile substances present in grape juice or wine. Moving forward, it is recommended that biological control methods be prioritized in efforts to reduce OTA levels in wine, with the goal of detoxifying OTA while preserving the organoleptic qualities of the wine.