Socio-ecological vulnerability to climate change among farmers in Son Beel, the largest freshwater wetland of the Indian sub-Himalayas

Son Beel, the largest freshwater wetlands in Indian sub-Himalayas, supports agriculture and local livelihoods through vital ecosystem services. However, climate change and unsustainable resource management heighten vulnerabilities, alter eco-hydrological conditions, reduce ecological resilience, and threaten the wetland's regenerative capacity. This study assessed socio-ecological vulnerabilities to climate change among wetland farmers in Son Beel, utilising the IPCC framework to examine social, economic, and ecological attributes. Data were collected through 160 household-level interviews across 16 randomly selected villages, complemented by village-level focus group discussions to explore adaptive strategies. Principal Component Analysis was used to identify key components, followed by aggregation to evaluate exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity. The entropy method was employed to estimate weights for sensitivity and adaptive capacity at the village level. After that, socio-ecological vulnerability was assessed using a vulnerability index, which was then spatially mapped using the Inverse Distance Weighting method. The majority of the households were nucleated families living in semi-pakka houses, with education largely limited to the elementary level. A majority of households (53.75 %) earned between US$60.93 and US$121.86 per month. Rising temperatures, frequent floods, water stress, and outbreaks of disease and pests severely impact crop and fish production across villages, compounded by wetland degradation that undermines ecosystem services and sustainable management. Villages like Krishna Nagar (0.34) and Bhairab Nagar (0.32) exhibit higher socio-ecological vulnerability, indicating a heightened climate risk. Nonetheless, villages with effective crop and fishery management ensure substantial productivity and secure livelihoods, supplemented by homegarden management, livestock rearing, and existing transportation and tourism networks that boost community incomes. Due to greater climate adaptability, Fakua Gram (0.20) and Anandapur (0.23) show lower socio-ecological vulnerability. The spatial map effectively highlights the villages with greater adaptability as well as those more susceptible to climate risks. Villages with lower adaptability require enhancing livelihood diversification, education, and housing infrastructure, which is essential to improve farmers' resilience against the future risks posed by climate change.