Morphogenesis and morphometry of brain folding patterns across species

Evolutionary adaptations associated with the formation of a folded cortex in many mammalian brains are thought to be a critical specialization associated with higher cognitive function. The dramatic surface expansion and highly convoluted folding of the cortex during early development is a theme with variations that suggest the need for a comparative study of cortical gyrification. Here, we use a combination of physical experiments using gels, computational morphogenesis, and geometric morphometrics to study the folding of brains across different species. Starting with magnetic resonance images of brains of a newborn ferret, a fetal macaque, and a fetal human, we construct two-layer physical gel brain models that swell superficially in a solvent, leading to folding patterns similar to those seen in vivo. We then adopt a three-dimensional continuum model based on differential growth to simulate cortical folding in silico. Finally, we deploy a comparative morphometric analysis of the in vivo, in vitro, and in silico surface buckling patterns across species. Our study shows that a simple mechanical instability driven by differential growth suffices to explain cortical folding and suggests that variations in the tangential growth and different initial geometries are sufficient to explain the differences in cortical folding across species.