The inheritance and evolution of traditional raw earth materials in early modern Church architecture in Southern Fujian (1840–1949)

This study explores the inheritance and evolution of raw-earth materials in early modern church architecture (1840–1949) in Southern Fujian, a topic often overlooked in favor of Western stylistic narratives. Through a combination of fieldwork and documentary research, this study examined 12 representative extant earthen churches distributed mainly in the Longyan region. The data sources included local gazetteers, church archives, cornerstone inscriptions, historical photographs, and onsite architectural surveys. Findings revealed that raw-earth walls, as key elements of local vernacular construction, were widely used throughout the early modern period and gradually transitioned from load-bearing to enclosure roles. The adaptation of raw-earth techniques was shaped by internal factors (traditional construction methods, local craftsmanship) and external conditions (regional geography, economic limitations, and labor capacity). The “Ying-Tsao” model, in which foreign missionaries or architects designed churches while the local craftsmen executed the construction, was a key mechanism facilitating the localization of the architectural practice. These churches are thus not simple Western transplants but hybrid architectural forms integrating Chinese building culture and Christian liturgical needs. The study contributes a new perspective on early modern Chinese architecture by foregrounding the role of indigenous materials and construction practices in shaping localized forms of Sino – Western architectural exchanges.