A framework to identify and value ecosystem services and disservices with supply and demand

Effective governance and management of ecosystem functions to promote human well-being and social equity require a clear understanding of supply and demand dynamics. While this is widely acknowledged in assessments of ecosystem services, it remains largely neglected for ecosystem disservices, despite many ecosystem functions generating both services (benefits) and disservices (costs) depending on spatial, temporal, and social contexts. To address this gap, we propose a conceptual framework for evaluating the supply of ecosystem functions in relation to stakeholder-specific demand for both services and the avoidance of disservices, supporting their integrated consideration in policy and management decisions. We demonstrate the framework's applicability by evaluating three ecosystem functions: herbivory, insect pollination, and nutrient cycling, using published data. Our analysis shows that each function produces substantial services and disservices depending on context, and highlights the need for context-targeted policies and management to reduce disservices while maintaining services. To this end, we suggest policies that influence demand (e.g. provide information about pollinator conservation to increase the willingness to pay for pollinator-induced seed set in otherwise seedless citrus), adjust incentive payments based on reduced ecosystem disservices (e.g. for agri-environmental actions that reduce nutrient emissions), or involve financial transfers from primary beneficiaries of services to those bearing disservice costs (e.g. moose hunters compensating forest owners for browsing damage). These cases highlight the importance of assessing supply and demand of both ecosystem services and disservices and show how our framework provides a flexible and practical tool for advancing context-sensitive policies and management to promote welfare and equity among stakeholders.