Spring Vulnerability to Environmental Degradation Necessitates Sustainable Land Management in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province, Pakistan

Environmental degradation is creating serious challenges for the spring water security in the mountainous region of South Asia. The freshwater springs meeting the growing water demands of the numerous mountain communities are under a high strain due to changing climate and land degradation in the region. The current study aims to assess the spring distribution and vulnerability to land degradation in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan using geospatial modeling techniques coupled with ground information. The study revealed a total of 2564 springs with a density of about 0.06 springs/km2 in the study area. More than fifty percent of springs were observed in the 1000–1400 mm rainfall regime, pointing towards a high influence of precipitation in recharging the springs. The mean soil loss of over 48.8 tons/ha/yr was predicted in the area, the risk of which was found to be very high (> 100 tons/ha/yr) over 12% and high (50–100 tons/ha/yr) over 8.1% of the area. Based on the land degradation analysis, over 20.4% of the springs appear to be highly vulnerable, 28.4% medium vulnerable, and 51.1% low vulnerable in the region. The restoration of the forest cover over mountain slopes and highland pastures can lessen overland flows and improve groundwater and spring resources. In-depth investigations of the hydrogeology and environmental implications could be helpful for sustainable management of the springs in the region. The study would provide a base for developing viable land and water conservation strategies to improve spring water security in the region in future.