Environmental Impacts of Lithium Brines Across the World: Brine Quality, Technology Choices and Regional Disparities

Lithium (Li), a critical mineral for the global clean energy transition, has experienced surging demand due to the widespread use of Li-ion batteries. Brine extraction has emerged as the dominant supply pathway, drawing increasing scrutiny over its environmental impacts. However, most studies are limited to single-site analyses, and a global, system-level understanding remains scarce. This study conducts a life cycle assessment (LCA) of Li carbonate equivalent (LCE) production from 11 representative brine operations worldwide, using site-specific inventory data. Key findings include: (1) among 11 brines, Atacama has the lowest impacts (GWP: 3.30 t CO2-equiv/t LCE) due to high Li grade and extensive solar use, whereas Cauchari-Olaroz and Qarhan show category-specific highs, reflecting the influence of brine quality and extraction technology. (2) Regionally, Chile shows the lowest GWP and water consumption (WCP: 58.04 m3/t LCE), Argentina the highest GWP (16.28 t CO2-equiv/t LCE), and the U.S. the highest WCP (496.53 m3/t LCE) from low-grade brines. In China, cleaner electricity and advanced technologies reduce impacts, though low brine quality offsets some benefits (GWP: 11.11 t CO2-equiv/t LCE; WCP: 163.55 m3/t LCE). (3) Among technologies, natural evaporation achieves the lowest GWP through solar-driven, low-energy processing, while electrolysis has the highest GWP (14.93 t CO2-equiv/t LCE) and adsorption–membrane coupling the highest WCP (617.1 m3/t LCE). (4) Sensitivity analysis reveals that steam use has the greatest impact on GWP (up to 7.7%), while soda ash and freshwater dominate WCP sensitivity (up to 8.7%). These findings can offer insights to the sustainable sourcing and environmental impacts mitigation of Li extraction at the global scale.