From empowerment to participation: How women’s political empowerment shapes non-institutionalized political participation and reduces gender disparities

This study examines how women’s political empowerment influences the gender gap in non-institutionalized political participation (protest, boycott and petition signing). It argues that gender differences in participation diminish as women attain greater political empowerment, defined as increasing equality in civil liberties, agency in civil society and public discourse, and political representation. Moreover, this paper emphasizes the significance of women’s political empowerment during the crucial formative years in young women’s political socialization. This study employs two extensive comparative survey datasets merged with data on female political empowerment from Varieties of Democracy, spanning nearly four decades and including 100 countries. Findings demonstrate that women’s political empowerment significantly reduces gender inequalities in non-institutionalized political participation, with the strongest effect occurring during the formative years. This research advances the understanding of the gender gap in political participation by demonstrating the pivotal role of women’s empowerment and the enduring influence of early socialization experiences.