Comparative analysis of risk factors associated with foot-and-mouth disease occurrence in hilly and plain regions

Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) remains one of the most economically devastating livestock diseases worldwide, particularly in endemic regions where diverse ecological and management practices complicate control efforts. This study aimed to identify and compare the key risk factors associated with FMD occurrence in hilly and plain regions to inform geographically tailored intervention strategies. A cross-sectional study was conducted involving 707 cattle farms 250 located in hilly regions and 457 in plain regions. Structured questionnaires were used to collect data on farm demographics, animal husbandry practices, housing conditions, and herd health management. Multivariate logistic regression was applied to assess associations between potential risk factors and FMD occurrence, with results presented as odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI). Significant risk factors for FMD occurrence included frequent interaction with other herds (OR = 2.07, 95% CI: 1.27-3.35, p = 0.001), recent FMD history in neighbouring farms (OR = 1.68, 95% CI: 0.73-3.12, p = 0.01), and the use of concrete housing (OR = 1.71, 95% CI: 1.08-2.74, p = 0.015). Farms in plain regions more frequently reported the use of intensive systems, commercial feed, and piped water factors that were positively associated with increased FMD risk. Male animals had significantly higher odds of FMD infection compared to females (OR = 1.67, 95% CI: 1.23-2.67, p = 0.031). Other factors such as deworming practices and cleaning frequency showed trends but were not statistically significant. FMD risk is influenced by both ecological and management-related factors. High herd interaction, farm clustering, and intensive housing conditions contribute to greater disease occurrence. These findings underscore the importance of developing region-specific biosecurity measures and control programs that consider local topography, resource use, and livestock movement dynamics.