Eco-Sustainable management of weeds and phytopathogens using Achillea millefolium essential oil

The increasing concern over the environmental impact of synthetic herbicides has led to growing interest in plant-based alternatives. This study investigates the phytotoxic and antimicrobial properties of Achillea millefolium essential oil (EO), collected in Agerola, Italy. The chemical composition analysis conducted by GC-MS identified 69 compounds, with oxygenated monoterpenes being the dominant group, including borneol (12 %), camphor (11.5 %), and 1,8-cineole (8.9 %). The phytotoxic activity was evaluated by analyzing both the root and hypocotyl elongation, as well as the number of germinated seeds of Sinapis arvenis, Lolium multiflorum, Raphanus sativus , and Hordeum vulgare. The EO demonstrated significant phytotoxic effects on seed germination and seedling growth, particularly against S. arvensis . Additionally, a possible inhibitory activity on the α-amylase enzyme extracted from germinating seeds was evaluated as a potential mechanism of action. The EO also exhibited antimicrobial activity against Xanthomonas campestris and Penicillium italicum . These findings highlight the potential of A. millefolium EO as a natural herbicide and antimicrobial agent, offering an eco-friendly alternative for sustainable agriculture. Furthermore, the eco-friendliness of this EO was evaluated using a lethality test of brine shrimp, with no toxicity observed on Artemia salina , suggesting its potential as a safe bioherbicide. • millefolium EO is eco-friendly, as it is non-toxic to Artemia salina. • Its phytotoxicity was linked to α-amylase inhibition, suggesting a potential mode of action. • The EO exhibited antimicrobial activity, especially against Xanthomonas campestris . • millefolium EO could be a potential natural herbicide and antimicrobial agent.