The Temporal and Spatial Responses of Large and Medium Mammals to Anthropogenic Disturbances in Montane Southwest China

Humans, as super predators, influence wildlife behavior through both direct predation and indirect fear effects, prompting spatial and temporal adaptations. In landscapes where human-wildlife coexistence is prevalent, understanding the spatiotemporal strategies employed by rare wildlife in response to anthropogenic disturbance is essential for effective biodiversity conservation. From July 2019 to September 2024, we deployed 62 camera traps in the Kazila Mountain region of Yajiang County, Sichuan Province, resulting in 6204 independent detections of rare wildlife and 722 recorded human activity events. Using occupancy modeling and kernel density estimation, we evaluated the influence of human presence and environmental variables on the behavior of forest-dwelling wildlife in the mountainous areas of southwestern China. Our camera traps recorded six herbivore species (e.g., tufted deer, sambar), nine carnivore species (e.g., red fox, leopard), and five omnivore species (e.g., wild boar, rhesus macaque). Representative species from each trophic group were selected for detailed analysis based on detection frequency. Temporally, all three groups exhibited distinct diel activity peaks that differed significantly from those of human activity. Carnivores (leopard, red fox) and herbivores (sambar, tufted deer) altered their activity rhythms in response to human presence, while omnivores (wild boar, rhesus macaque) showed substantial overlap with human activity periods but avoided peak disturbance times. Spatially, carnivores tended to use areas with greater human and livestock presence, whereas herbivores preferred locations further from roads and settlements, typically in gentler terrain. Among omnivores, rhesus macaques avoided areas with high human and livestock activity, while wild boars appeared largely unaffected by such disturbances. These findings offer important insights into the conservation of rare wildlife in the mountainous regions of southwest China. This study underscores the utility of camera traps in directly monitoring human disturbance and quantifying its ecological impacts. The differential spatiotemporal responses observed among threatened medium- and large-sized mammals highlight their behavioral plasticity in disturbed environments, aiding predictions of species' responses to future environmental change based on current adaptation strategies.