Achieving inclusive digital development: A frugal strategy based on lessons from three West African smallholder agriculture value chains

This article has two objectives. One is to examine mechanisms of inclusion and exclusion that arise despite the widespread diffusion of digital devices and supporting infrastructure. The second is to propose expanding the perspective on digital inclusion to consider users of digital technologies within their environment. Recognizing that innovation diffusion processes can exacerbate existing inequalities and/or create new ones, this study aims to assist researchers and practitioners in preventing potential negative impacts of digitalization. Using digital divides and digital inclusion frameworks, we examine three value chains in three West African countries using mixed methods. The findings reveal that communication networks and phones are increasingly available, yet traditional digital divides persist in all three value chains. Although the value chains share similarities in their challenges and opportunities, the needs of the actors involved vary. The discussion underscores two key points: first, the efficacy of digital solutions hinges upon their alignment with collective habits and capacities; and second, solutions should prioritize frugality, particularly when designing digital technologies for producers who have limited yet valuable digital skills. These insights highlight the importance of tailoring digital interventions to local contexts and use habits. • Digital literacy rises naturally as people move from no phone, to a basic phone, to eventually owning a smartphone. • Digital inclusion is related to people's access and capacity, and is affected by social norms and values. • Farmers adopt generic digital services, not agricultural specific or advanced services. • Digital services with low ethical or privacy appeal may offer the greatest potential for inclusion today. • What is frugal depends on where and by whom in the value chain the technology is used.