A Theory of Time in Music Therapy: A Model for Analyzing Nordoff–Robbins Clinical Improvisation

The significance of time in music therapy has been discussed by a few researchers (e.g., Abrams, 2011; Aigen, 2013; Hadar & Amir, 2021; Robbins & Forinash, 1991; Ruud, 2008); however, it has mostly been overlooked in the field. The current study focused on unpacking Nordoff and Robbins's (NR) uses of music's temporality in their clinical improvisations with the children they worked with. Embedded in a grounded theory approach, the first author coded the recordings of full-length courses of therapy with 7 children who met with NR for regular music therapy treatment, and 3 additional courses of therapy that were only partially analyzed. The analysis revealed NR's extensive use of temporality to engage a child musically and achieve various therapy goals. The integration of all temporal techniques gave rise to a four-position time model for understanding clinical improvisation, including (a) Augmented Time Frame (e.g., moments when NR were expanding the musical form with musical rests); (b) Playing in Synchronization (e.g., moments when NR were inviting the clients to play simultaneously within a pre-determined tempo); (c) Emotional Time (e.g., moments when NR were inviting the client for a time-free exploration of their inner selves); and (d) Synchronization Discrepancies (e.g., moments when NR were enabling a free negotiation over the improvisation's tempo). The authors also make theoretical links between temporal positions and therapy goals, and practical recommendations are provided.