Childhood trauma exposure while growing up during war and PTSD symptoms in adulthood

Background: Exposure to war in childhood and adolescence can have enduring effects on mental health, particularly posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The long-term role of both wartime and postwar traumatic experiences, and the moderating influence of gender, remain insufficiently understood. Purpose: This study examined the contribution of potentially traumatic events (PTEs) during and after the Croatian Homeland War (1991–1995) to PTSD symptoms in adulthood, with attention to gender differences. Research Design: A cross-sectional, retrospective design was used to link childhood and adolescent trauma exposure to adult PTSD symptoms. Study Sample: Participants were 298 adults (197 women, 101 men) who were 3–18 years old during the war and currently living in three war-affected Croatian counties. Data Collection and/or Analysis: Self-report measures included sociodemographic characteristics, 26 PTEs experienced during or after the war, and PTSD symptoms (PCL-5). Analyses included correlations, multilevel linear mixed models, and multigroup structural equation modeling to test predictive effects and gender moderation. Results: Thirteen wartime and ten postwar PTEs were significantly associated with PTSD symptoms. Wartime exposure explained 11.7% of the variance, while combined wartime and postwar exposure explained 24.5%. Key predictors were sexual or nonsexual assault by a family member or known person and deprivation of food or water. Women reported more severe PTSD symptoms and showed greater vulnerability across contexts. Conclusions: Interpersonal violence and deprivation, rather than combat-related experiences, predicted adult PTSD. Gender-sensitive interventions that ensure safety, address deprivation, and strengthen caregiving are essential for supporting the long-term wellbeing of war-affected children.