The rise and flaws of the mission machine: A historical critique of research success metrics since the 1960s

<ns3:p>Science policy systems depend on indicators to ensure that vast sums of money are spent in a transparent and accountable way. In this article, we investigate why and how the key accounting system, the Frascati manual, originated, was developed, and has been maintained over time, despite – and increasingly at variance with – developing policy objectives. The manual has undergone several updates and revisions but remains based on a set of parameters originally designed to measure research activity as it was performed and understood over 60 years ago. We argue that the manual is ill-equipped to capture fundamental changes in research resulting from breakthroughs in multidisciplinary approaches, digital technologies, and the co-creation of knowledge in partnerships in recent decades, and poorly equipped to measure the impact of the social and human sciences. In conclusion, science policy today is served by a systematically biased accounting system: in essence, a flawed Mission Machine.</ns3:p>