Linking groundwater variability to ecosystem carbon and water use efficiencies across India

Carbon use efficiency (CUE) and water use efficiency (WUE) are important indicators of ecosystem health, reflecting the balance between carbon uptake and allocation, and the relationship between carbon assimilation and water loss. Although India shows large spatiotemporal variation in water table depth (WTD), and increasing groundwater stress, the influence of WTD on ecosystem functioning remains underexplored. This study uses satellite-based, modeled, and in-situ datasets to (1) quantify variations in CUE and WUE under shallow (SWTD) and deep (DWTD) WTD conditions across six homogeneous meteorological regions (HMRs), (2) evaluate temporal roles of gross primary productivity (GPP), net primary productivity (NPP), and evapotranspiration (ET) in driving these efficiencies, and (3) examine temporal responses to WTD shifts. SWTD regions generally showed 12 to 18 % higher GPP, 10 to 15 % higher NPP, and 10 to 20 % higher ET than DWTD zones, especially in semi-arid croplands and forests, leading to 8 to 12 % higher CUE and WUE. However, in humid and heavily irrigated regions such as northeastern and hilly India, CUE was up to 10 % higher in DWTD zones, possibly due to reduced respiration and better soil aeration compared to SWTD areas affected by waterlogging. During the Kharif (wet) season, DWTD croplands in humid zones had higher efficiencies, while in the Rabi (dry) season, SWTD croplands in northern India benefited from irrigation and cooler temperatures. These results highlight strong influence of WTD on carbon and water use processes and support the need for region-specific groundwater strategies. • We assessed CUE and WUE in response to WTD variabilities. • Distinct responses were observed for SWTD and DWTD regions. • The variability was driven by land management, climate, and geological patterns. • The root zone depth features determined the variability across biomes. • Distinct responses in SWTD and DWTD croplands were due to agricultural policies.