The inherited story: multigenerational reversible effects of graphene oxide from F1 to F4 generations of <i>Drosophila melanogaster</i>

With advances in the application of graphene oxide (GO), the major hindering factor is its toxicity. It is crucial to understand the immediate effects on the parent generation as well as the long-term multigenerational effects on subsequent generations. In this paper we investigated the multigenerational effect of GO from the parent to subsequent generations (F0, F1, F2, F3 to F4) in <i>Drosophila melanogaster</i> model organism. Flies were exposed to GO through the ingestion method at concentrations ranging from 50 µg/mL, 100 µg/mL, and 250 µg/mL. The effects of GO were studied at different levels via climbing assay, longevity assay, oxidative stress and phenotypic screening in subsequent generations. Significant declines were observed in the climbing ability, an increase in oxidative stress (F2), and a decrease in lifespan of the parent (F0) to progeny (F1, F2) flies exposed to GO. Critically, the reversal of these toxic effects in the later generations (F3-F4), suggests the development of adaptive mechanisms through which flies overcome the detrimental impacts of prolonged GO exposure. These findings underscore the importance of examining the multigenerational effects of nanomaterials (NMs), as the initial toxicity may not persist over time due to the emergence of adaptive responses in subsequent generations. Understanding and mitigating the toxicity of GO over generations is essential for its safe application in various fields.