Phytofabrication of Ag/AgCl silver nanoparticles from the extract of <i>Phoenix dactylifera</i> L. Medjool date seeds: synthesis, characterization and antimicrobial properties

The persistence of biofilm-associated infections in skin and soft tissues poses a significant challenge in clinical settings, necessitating the development of sustainable alternatives to conventional antimicrobial agents, paired with development of eco-friendly and non-toxic nanomaterials. This study reports phytofabrication of Ag/AgCl nanoparticles (Ag/AgCl-NPs) using ultrasonicated 80% ethanolic extract of <i>Phoenix dactylifera</i> L. Medjool date seeds (MdSE) without using any external reagents, leveraging their rich phytochemical content as natural reducing and stabilizing agents. The synthesized nanoparticles were characterized using UV-visible spectroscopy (UV-vis), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), high-resolution field emission transmission electron microscopy (HR-FETEM), selected area electron diffraction (SAED), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) confirming their average size of 16.75 ± 7.25 nm, spherical morphology, crystalline structure, face-centered cubic (fcc) phase, silver and chlorine entities, and high colloidal stability. Phytochemical screening <i>via</i> Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis identified polyphenols, flavonoid, and protein as the key contributors to the reduction of Ag⁺ ions to Ag⁰ species, leading to the successful formation of MdSE-Ag/AgCl-NPs. The antimicrobial efficacy of the nanoparticles was evaluated against two pathogenic Gram-negative bacteria (<i>Escherichia coli</i> and <i>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</i>) and one Gram-positive bacteria (<i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>). The synthesized nanoparticles exhibited significant antibacterial activity, with substantial inhibition of bacterial biofilm formation, especially in reducing biofilm development by 73.57% for <i>P. aeruginosa</i> and 88.66% for <i>S. aureus</i> at 1*MIC, respectively. The synthesized MdSE-Ag/AgCl-NPs exhibit promising characteristics, supporting the effectiveness of Medjool seeds as a bioreductant in nanoparticle synthesis. Their notable properties suggest potential applications in modern medicine and clinical applications, particularly for biofilm prevention and management.