Markerless 2D/3D image guidance vs. 2D fluoroscopy in posterior pedicle screw fixation using intraoperative 2D imaging: An experimental study

Markerless 2D/3D image guidance significantly enhances the accuracy of PS placement compared to 2D fluoroscopy, although it requires more time for each placement. This system has the potential to improve precision in minimally invasive spine surgery, especially in settings without access to advanced 3D navigation systems. However, the results are based on artificial bone models and limited user experience, which may reduce their generalizability to clinical practice.