Assessing Land Use Land Cover Change in Southeastern Benue State, Nigeria (1991–2024): Implications for Settlement Patterns

Rapid urbanisation, population growth, agricultural expansion, and infrastructural development have significantly altered land use and settlement patterns in Southeastern Benue State, Nigeria. This study assesses land use and land cover (LULC) change in southeastern Benue State, Nigeria, between 1991 and 2024, with emphasis on implications for settlement patterns. Four multi-temporal Landsat images, TM (1991), ETM+ (2000, 2011), and OLI (2024), sourced from the USGS Earth Explorer were analysed using supervised classification. Five LULC classes were defined: forest cover, grassland/pasture, settlement, waterbody, and rock outcrop/bare land. Ground truth data from GPS-referenced field points and Google Earth imagery supported classification and accuracy assessment. Results reveal a marked transformation in the region’s landscape. Forest cover declined from 3,353 km² (52%) in 1991 to 1,125 km² (17.45%) in 2024, indicating a 34.55% loss, largely due to agricultural expansion, logging, and settlement growth. Grassland/pasture increased from 2,957 km² (45.86%) to 4,617 km² (71.60%), reflecting conversion of forests to grazing and cropland. Settlements expanded from 63 km² (0.98%) to 442 km² (6.85%), with notable clustering along transport corridors and around urbanising centres such as Konshisha, Ushongo, and Vandeikya. Water bodies remained minimal and stable (0.31%), while rock outcrop/bare land increased from 51 km² (0.79%) to 244 km² (3.78%), possibly due to erosion and land degradation. Spatial analysis indicates intensified fragmentation of forested zones, expansion of grasslands into formerly forested areas, and a shift towards more extensive and connected settlement networks. These changes imply mounting anthropogenic pressures, reduced biodiversity, altered ecosystem functions, and increasing land management challenges. The findings underscore the need for integrated land use planning, sustainable agricultural practices, and forest conservation to mitigate environmental degradation and guide future settlement development in southeastern Benue State.