Degradation factors of commercial lithium-ion batteries

Lithium-ion batteries (LiBs) represent a state-of-the-art electrochemical energy storage technology, enabling applications from portable electronics and electric transportation to large-scale grid energy storage systems. Despite their widespread adoption, LiBs face challenges like performance decrease, reduced lifespan, and safety risks, all closely tied to battery degradation. This review systematically examines the factors influencing LiB degradation, dividing them into intrinsic and extrinsic categories. Intrinsic factors include material chemistry, manufacturing inconsistencies, and design limitations, while extrinsic factors cover operational conditions such as temperature, charge–discharge rates, state of charge, and depth of discharge. The degradation factors influence the degradation mechanisms, and these correlations are discussed in detail. Additionally, this study highlights mitigation strategies and tradeoffs, including advanced electrode designs, surface modifications, and optimized battery management systems. By consolidating current research, this review provides insights into overcoming the challenges associated with LiB degradation, aiming to guide future developments in achieving safer, more durable, and efficient energy storage systems.