Net energy–cost optimization of STPV–PDRC integrated greenhouses: Balancing energy production and cooling demand under crop-specific DLI constraints

• PDRC dominates at low DLI (10), cutting costs to $6800 and supplying >80% energy via passive cooling. • STPV needed for high DLI (30), but costs soar ($22000) due to daylighting–energy trade-offs. • Material choice matters: STPV-Type 1 suits moderate DLI (20); vertical PDRC cuts cooling costs. • PDRC saves $0.29/kWh vs STPV $1.94/kWh, best for tight budgets or cooling-driven settings. • STPV efficiency drives >6,000 kWh gains; transparency and PDRC reflectivity also key factors. Optimizing greenhouse envelopes to balance energy efficiency, economic feasibility, and crop lighting requirements is a growing priority for sustainable agriculture. This study developed a multi-objective optimization framework integrating passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC) materials and semi-transparent photovoltaics (STPV) to enhance greenhouse performance under varying daily light integral (DLI) constraints. Using coupled energy simulation, daylight analysis, and cost modeling, we evaluated material configurations across various representative DLI thresholds, reflecting different crop requirements. Also, the study presents quantitative assessment of PDRC’s contribution to cooling demand reduction (CDR). An improved equilibrium optimizer (IEO) algorithm was employed to solve the multi-objective problem. Results revealed two distinct energy benefit modes. In passive-dominant regimes (DLI = 10), PDRC coatings accounted for over 97 % of total net energy savings (7649 kWh), enabling the lowest-cost configuration ($6,800). In contrast, active-dominant regimes (DLI = 30) favored STPV deployment, achieving up to 16,290 kWh net energy with higher transparency and electrical efficiency. The results reveal that increased PDRC’s reflectivity from 0.75 to 0.89 resulted in CDR gains of over 640 kWh annually in a representative configuration. This study provides a decision-support framework for designing climate-responsive, energy-efficient greenhouses, emphasizing the critical role of material selection and spatial allocation in achieving sustainability goals.