Long-term economic and yield comparison of organic and conventional cotton-based production systems with wheat and soybean rotations in central India

The rising demand for organic products has intensified comparisons between organic and conventional farming systems, especially for smallholders. Balancing productivity and profitability is key to supporting sustainable farming. This study assesses the economic and yield performance of organic versus conventional cotton-based systems with wheat and soybean rotations in central India. Conducted over eight cropping cycles, each comprising 2-year rotations, the long-term experiment (LTE) compared biodynamic, organic, conventional, and conventional Bt cotton systems. Organic crops yielded between 77 % (wheat) and 102 % (soybean) of their conventional counterparts. Organic cotton yielded 93 % relative to non-Bt and 82 % relative to Bt conventional cotton, with year-to-year variations. Cotton had the highest total production costs, with Bt conventional costs 5 % higher due to higher seed and fertilizer expenses. Input costs for soybean were approximately 28 % lower in organic systems, while wheat showed 6 % higher costs in conventional treatments. The Bt cotton conventional system showed the highest mean annual gross margins, 11 % higher than other systems, though no significant differences were observed among the other three. Cotton gross margins, influenced by its high production costs, contributed substantially to income variability across all systems. These findings suggest that adaptations in crop management and rotation diversity can play a more crucial role in determining farm income than the choice between organic and conventional practices. This offers insights for similar agro-ecological contexts, emphasizing the importance of tailoring rotations and inputs to local conditions for the economic resilience of smallholders. • Organic cotton exhibited relative yields of 93 % and 82 % compared to non-Bt and Bt cotton. • Relative yields of organic crops ranged from 77 % for wheat to 102 % for soybeans. • Conventional systems with Bt cotton showed a 11 % higher mean annual gross margin. • Farm income is more significantly impacted by adaptations and crop diversity within the system.