Terrestrial Planet Formation from Two Source Reservoirs

Abstract This work describes new dynamical simulations of terrestrial planet formation. The simulations started at the protoplanetary disk stage, when planetesimals formed and accreted into protoplanets, and continued past the late stage of giant impacts. We explored the effect of different parameters, such as the initial radial distribution of planetesimals and Type-I migration of protoplanets, on the final results. In each case, a thousand simulations were completed to characterize the stochastic nature of the accretion process. In the model best able to satisfy various constraints, Mercury, Venus, and Earth accreted from planetesimals that formed early near the silicate sublimation line at ≃0.5 au and migrated by disk torques. For Venus and Earth to end up at 0.7–1 au, Type-I migration had to be directed outward, for example, as the magnetically driven winds reduced the surface gas density in the inner part of the disk. Mercury was left behind near the original ring location. We suggest that Mars and multiple Mars-sized protoplanets grew from a distinct outer source of planetesimals at 1.5–2 au. While many migrated inward to accrete onto the proto-Earth, our Mars was the lone survivor. This model explains: (1) the masses and orbits of the terrestrial planets, (2) the chemical composition of the Earth, where ∼70% and ∼30% come from reduced inner-ring and more-oxidized outer-ring materials, and (3) the isotopic differences of the Earth and Mars. It suggests that the Moon-forming impactor Theia plausibly shared a similar isotopic composition and accretion history with that of the proto-Earth.