Advances In Transgenic Technologies and Their Role in Crop Breeding and Improvement: From First-Generation Gm Crops to Next-Gen Precision Breeding

Transgenic technologies have revolutionized crop breeding by enabling precise introduction of novel traits beyond the limitations of conventional crossing. Over the past three decades, advancements in genetic engineering—from Agrobacterium-mediated transformation to CRISPR-based transgenesis—have contributed to improved yield, stress tolerance, nutritional quality, and resistance to pests and diseases. This review discusses historical milestones, breakthroughs in transformation systems, and emerging genome engineering platforms. It also highlights their integration with conventional breeding, regulatory landscapes, biosafety issues, and societal acceptance. The paper emphasizes how next-generation transgenic technologies, in combination with omics and digital agriculture, are shaping sustainable crop improvement strategies for global food security.