Strengthening Climate-Smart Agriculture-Responsive Extension in Kenya: Evidence on Inclusion and Effectiveness for Smallholder Farmers

Despite Kenya's policy commitment to Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) and progressive reforms in agricultural extension, significant gaps remain in ensuring equitable access to and effective services, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. This study examines the delivery and perception of CSA-responsive extension services among smallholder farmers in Tharaka Nithi County, focusing on three key dimensions: inclusion (gender and disability), feedback mechanisms, and provider type (public versus private). Utilizing a cross-sectional mixed-methods approach with 418 respondents, the study integrates quantitative analysis with qualitative insights to evaluate access to extension services and CSA adoption. The findings indicate that private sector-led extension services reached a more diverse group of farmers and were more strongly associated with CSA adoption than public sector-led services. Although gender and disability alone did not yield statistically significant differences in access, their combined effect approached significance, indicating the presence of intersectional barriers. Feedback mechanisms also influenced outcomes: field visits and community meetings effectively promoted CSA adoption, particularly for farmers with disabilities, whereas Short Message Service (SMS) messaging had limited impact. Education and farming experience emerged as significant factors facilitating adoption. Overall, the findings highlight the limitations of conventional, top-down extension systems and underscore the necessity for more participatory, inclusive, and locally adapted approaches. This study advocates for a transition toward a multi-actor, learning-centered CSA-responsive extension model to ensure that climate resilience strategies equitably reach and benefit all farmers, especially those situated at the last mile of service delivery.