Planning human-dominated landscapes for wolf conservation: the role of resting habitats

Abstract Context Planning human-dominated landscapes for large carnivore conservation requires careful consideration of key trophic and habitat resources, including suitable resting habitats. However, the specific characteristics of these habitats often remain poorly understood, particularly because they may be influenced by individual traits, circadian rhythms, and site use typology. Objectives This study investigates wolf resting site selection in relation to human infrastructure and activities, and how this is affected by the social status of individuals (residents vs dispersers), time of day (day vs night), and the typology of resting sites use (occasionally vs regular). Methods We focused on wolves inhabiting heavily human-modified landscapes in northwestern Portugal, using GPS telemetry data from 15 individuals collected over a 9-year period. A use–availability design and conditional logistic regression were employed to compare habitat conditions at used resting sites with those available in the surrounding landscape. Analyses were conducted separately for resident and dispersing individuals, as well as for daytime and nighttime periods. To evaluate the influence of site fidelity on selection patterns, we quantified the frequency of revisitation to each resting site. Results Wolves consistently avoided human structures and areas with high livestock density when selecting resting sites, with stronger avoidance by dispersers and during daytime hours. Residents tended to select higher elevations at night, while dispersers avoided high elevations, particularly during the day. Dispersers showed stronger avoidance of human disturbances than residents, likely reflecting their use of more heavily modified areas. Regularly used resting sites were particularly associated with high vegetation cover and low levels of human disturbance. Conclusions Our findings demonstrate that minimizing exposure to human-related risks is a central driver of wolf resting site selection. Conservation and land-use planning should prioritize the protection of areas with dense vegetation and limited human disturbance to ensure the availability of safe resting habitats in both natural and highly transformed landscapes, thereby supporting wolf survival and connectivity.