Global energy and carbon emissions of irrigation and fertilizers management for closing crop yield gaps

Abstract Yield gaps present a key opportunity to meet the increasing global food demand. Defined as the difference between actual and attainable crop yields, they can be reduced by expanding irrigation and increasing nutrient inputs—strategies whose land, water, and nutrient requirements have been quantified in previous studies; however, their energy consumption and emissions remain largely unknown. This study quantifies the energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with yield gap closure through irrigation and fertilizer management. Our findings indicate that energy consumption for irrigation pumping, and fertilizer production under baseline scenario is 462 TWh and 1884 TWh per year, respectively. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium fertilizers account for 97%, 2%, and 1% of total fertilizer energy consumption. These activities contribute 552 Mt CO 2 e annually—154 Mt from irrigation and 398 Mt from fertilizer production. Closing the full yield gap would double annual energy consumption to 4579 TWh with emissions of 1.1 Gt CO 2 e, equivalent to 3% of global energy consumption and 2% of total GHG emissions in 2020. Although closing 75% or 50% of the yield gap would reduce energy use and GHG emissions, countries such as India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and several in Sub-Saharan Africa would still face disproportionate burdens, requiring over 15% of their national energy consumption and more than 5% of their total GHG emissions to achieve the full yield gap closure. These findings reveal pronounced regional disparities in agricultural productivity, energy demands, and environmental trade-offs, underscoring the need for locally tailored strategies to strengthen food system resilience, while also advancing low-carbon energy infrastructure, reducing fossil fuel dependence, and enhancing energy security.