Entrepreneurial Orientation in Non-Governmental Organizations: A Comparative Case Study Approach

Research background and purpose Entrepreneurial Orientation (EO) has been extensively studied in the context of for-profit enterprises but remains underexplored in the non-profit sector. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs), operating under increasing financial and institutional constraints, require innovative strategies to ensure sustainability and impact. This study aims to examine how EO is implemented in NGOs, particularly in relation to sustainability, financial independence, and strategic scalability. It explores the specific dimensions of EO—innovativeness, proactiveness, risk-taking, autonomy, and competitive aggressiveness—and their role in shaping NGO strategies and outcomes. Design/methodology/approach A qualitative comparative case study method was used, analyzing five Polish NGOs with varying levels of entrepreneurial engagement. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews, organizational reports, and field observations. The analysis focused on identifying how EO dimensions manifest in different organizational contexts and how mechanisms such as social franchising and cross-sector collaboration contribute to organizational resilience and growth. Findings The results indicate that NGOs with higher levels of EO – particularly those actively engaging in innovation, partnerships, and diversified funding – demonstrate stronger adaptability and long-term sustainability. Organization A, in particular, stands out for its use of social franchising, extensive collaboration, and financial innovation. Conversely, NGOs with limited EO tend to rely on traditional funding and operate with lower strategic autonomy, making them more vulnerable to external pressures. Value added and limitations This study contributes to EO theory by extending its application to the NGO sector and identifying social franchising as a distinct EO mechanism tailored to mission-driven contexts. It offers practical insights for NGO leaders and policymakers on integrating entrepreneurial strategies without compromising social objectives. The main limitations lie in the qualitative scope, regional focus (Poland), and pre-pandemic data collection period. These findings provide a foundation for future research using quantitative and cross-country methods to further investigate EO in non-profit environments.