Diversifying ‘ <i>out of necessity, not choice’</i> : The gender paradox of household headship in livelihood diversification of an indigenous South Asian community

This paper empirically examines the influence of gendered household headship on livelihood diversification of the Oraon community, one of South Asia's largest Indigenous populations. The analysis reveals sharp gendered dichotomies in diversification strategies, rooted not only in household composition but also in broader socio-economic and institutional exclusions. Female-headed households (FHHs) demonstrate a marked tendency toward moderately diversified livelihood portfolios, strategically engaging multiple income sources as a coping mechanism in the absence of male earners. In contrast, male-headed households (MHHs) predominantly pursue specialised livelihood strategies, often dependent on a single economic activity. Yet, despite their broader diversification, FHHs experience lower returns: for instance, in the category of very limited diversification, MHHs report slightly higher median incomes than their female counterparts. This paradox, wherein FHHs diversify more but earn less, underscores the structural conditions under which women engage in economic activity. Their diversification is less a reflection of opportunity and more an outcome of necessity. Econometric findings highlight key determinants of diversification, including education, household size, livelihood risk, socio-economic status, and access to information. These factors operate unevenly on resilience praxis across different gendered household types. By foregrounding these gender-specific livelihood dynamics, the study contributes to critical debates on sustainable livelihoods and Indigenous development. The study demonstrates that gendered power relations and uneven access to resources profoundly shape household economic decisions in subaltern communities. Ultimately, the findings call into question mainstream development narratives that equate diversification with empowerment, emphasizing the need for gender-responsive, structurally grounded policy interventions.