Exploring the T3E nexus: Tourism, energy, economy, and their impact on the ecological footprint in BRICS countries

The BRICS nations face increasing pressure to adopt sustainable practices due to their significant ecological footprints and rising global environmental concerns. This study investigates the long- and short-run effects of energy consumption (renewable and non-renewable), economic growth, and tourism on the ecological footprint of BRICS countries from 1992 to 2018—framed within the broader T3E (Tourism-Energy-Economy-Environment) nexus. Utilizing the ARDL model along with FMOLS and DOLS techniques ensures the robustness of long-run estimates and a comprehensive understanding of the dynamic relationships among the variables. Data on ecological footprint is drawn from the Global Footprint Network (GFN), while information on renewable energy (REN), non-renewable energy (NREN), economic growth (EG), and tourism is sourced from the World Development Indicators (WDI). The findings indicate that non-renewable energy consumption significantly increases the ecological footprint (coefficient: 1.32), highlighting its negative impact on the environment. In contrast, renewable energy consumption contributes to a reduction in the ecological footprint, promoting environmental sustainability (coefficient:0.42), supporting the case for a transition to cleaner energy sources. Economic growth also has a positive and significant effect on ecological footprint (coefficient: 0.17), suggesting that without sustainable management, economic expansion exacerbates environmental degradation. Interestingly, tourism shows a significant negative impact (coefficient:0.17), implying that it can contribute to ecological sustainability if guided by responsible practices. The study also reveals both unidirectional and bidirectional causal links among the variables, underscoring the complex interplay that shapes ecological outcomes. By simultaneously employing multiple robust estimation techniques and incorporating tourism alongside energy consumption and economic growth variables, this study provides a novel and comprehensive understanding of the key drivers influencing the ecological footprint in BRICS countries. Understanding the complex relationships between tourism, energy use, economic growth, and environmental impact is crucial for designing integrated policies that balance development with sustainability. These findings underscore the urgent need for targeted policy interventions in BRICS nations, emphasizing the expansion of renewable energy adoption and the promotion of sustainable tourism practices to effectively mitigate environmental degradation and secure long-term ecological sustainability.