The Effect of Language Background and Grade Level on Fricative Production of Children Learning Mandarin in a Chinese–English Bilingual Program

The finding that unshared fricatives were more difficult than shared ones, along with the significant impact of language background-but not grade level-on the accuracy of fricatives unique to Mandarin, suggests that students, even in higher grades, can benefit from more explicit teaching. The developmental patterns and error trends identified in this study can serve as a reference for speech assessment and aid in planning treatment or instructional sessions.