Sustainable Energy Solutions in Urban Management: Carbon Emissions and Economic Assessment of Photovoltaic Systems at Electric Vehicle Stations in Hybrid Buildings

The accelerating demand for sustainable energy solutions in urban environments has prompted the application of building-integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) systems in electric vehicles (EVs).This study assessed the impact of BIPV-EV systems in Surabaya, Indonesia, forecasting its energy production, environmental advantages, and economic viability between 2026 and 2036.Simulations conducted using HOMER Pro and photovoltaic system (PVsyst) suggested that the rooftop photovoltaic (RPV) capacity will increase from 4.6 GW in 2026 to 6.0 GW by 2036, while facade photovoltaic (FaPV) capacity is projected to grow from 1.6 GW to 2.0 GW.The combined generation of RPV and FaPV is anticipated to reach 9.71 GWh annually by 2036, ultimately reducing grid dependency to 36.6%.Additionally, carbon emissions from the BIPV-EV systems are expected to decrease from 616 tons per year in a grid-based scenario to 520 tons annually, hence reducing carbon intensity to 0.05 kg CO/kWh.Although the initial investment is projected at USD 3.2 billion and USD 4.8 billion in 2026 and 2036, respectively, the implementation of BIPV-EV systems is advantageous owing to significant savings on energy costs in the long run and decreasing reliance on fossil fuels.These findings underscored the potential of BIPV in advancing urban sustainability and accomplishing the objectives of energy transition in Indonesia.