Contact-Separation Triboelectric Nanogenerators with Variable-Angle Motion: An Electromagnetic Approach Based on Maxwell's Equations

Triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs), which are primarily based on Maxwell's equations, provide a lightweight, cost-effective approach for energy harvesting and self-powered sensing, particularly excelling in low-frequency mechanical energy conversion. While conventional research primarily focuses on vertical or horizontal contact-separation, a theoretical framework for variable-angle motion remains underdeveloped. This study formulates an electromagnetic model for variableangle contact-separation TENGs using Maxwell's equations, incorporating mechanically induced charge redistribution to refine the theoretical electric potential distribution. Analytical solutions confirm that angular motion can enhance displacement current and energy conversion efficiency. To validate the proposed model, simulated electric potential outputs are compared with experimental results from a prototyped multilayer zigzag TENG structure, demonstrating strong agreement and practical feasibility. These findings provide a robust theoretical foundation for optimizing TENG performance in dynamic mechanical systems, with applications in sustainable energy, mechanical sensing, and IoT devices.