Geological CO2 storage assessment in emerging CCS regions: Review of sequestration potential, policy development, and socio-economic factors in Poland

Emerging carbon capture and storage (CCS) markets face critical challenges in developing systematic methodologies to assess geological CO2 storage potential under conditions of limited data availability, evolving regulatory frameworks, and nascent infrastructure development. This study establishes an assessment framework designed for lower-maturity CCS regions, using Poland as a representative case study to demonstrate methodology application and validate framework effectiveness. The framework integrates geological characterization, storage capacity assessment, regulatory analysis, and socio-economic evaluation through a structured approach adaptable to diverse global contexts. Poland's coal-reliant economy exemplifies the decarbonization challenges facing emerging CCS regions while meeting European Union climate mandates. The country's geological setting offers substantial sequestration opportunities across three major sedimentary regions. Through multidisciplinary analysis synthesizing scattered geological data, policy developments, CCUS value chain, and stakeholder perspectives, we systematically evaluate CO2 storage potential. Onshore saline aquifers and depleted hydrocarbon fields provide significant storage capacity, while offshore Baltic Basin sites face logistical and environmental regulatory constraints. Current assessments encounter critical limitations, including sparse data, restricted research access, and inadequate industry-academia collaboration, preventing basin-scale analyses from advancing to higher storage readiness levels and undermining business decision-making reliability. This study contributes a replicable methodology extending beyond Poland to lower-maturity CCS regions worldwide. The framework provides decision-makers with systematic tools for storage assessment, policy development, and stakeholder engagement, supporting evidence-based CCS deployment strategies. Success in emerging markets requires coordinated advancement across technical characterization, regulatory clarity, infrastructure development, and public engagement, with transparent governance and inclusive community participation as critical enablers for sustainable CCS implementation.