‘Keseph’: The Use of Silver Money in the Southern Levant from the Middle Bronze Age to the End of the Iron Age (~ 2000–600 BC)

Abstract This paper examines the use of silver as a form of pre-coinage money in the Southern Levant from the Middle Bronze Age to the end of the Iron Age (~ 2000–600 BC). Drawing on evidence from unearthed hoards, it also explores how silver gradually emerged as a preferred medium of exchange, beginning with its introduction in Mesopotamia and Syria in the EBA, in Anatolia during the MBA, in the Southern Levant during MB III, in Egypt, Cyprus and the Northern Levant during the Late Bronze Age (LBA) II, and finally in the Aegean during Iron Age II. The Southern Levant saw significant use of silver during the final stages of the Middle Bronze Age, with the first silver-currency hoards appearing at Shiloh and Gezer (~ 1650/1600–1600/1550 BC), predating other regions. Although silver was temporarily replaced by gold in the Late Bronze Age, it re-emerged as the dominant form of money by the Late Bronze Age IIB, ~ 1300 BC, a status it retained until the end of the Iron Age (~ 600 BC), despite occasional shortages. The distribution and context of silver hoards suggest evolving socio-economic patterns, where silver was initially restricted to elite transactions but later became more widely used in both domestic and public spheres. This study emphasizes that while silver became the leading form of money in the Southern Levant, other regions used different metals, such as gold, copper and bronze, at various times. The adoption of silver in the Levant likely reflects broader political and economic ties with Mesopotamia, Syria and Anatolia.