Advancing fugacity modeling of POPs: Critical evaluation of multimedia frameworks and future pathways

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are toxic chemicals that persist in the environment, bioaccumulate in living organisms, and transfer across media such as air, water, and soil. While numerous reviews have addressed multimedia models for POPs, few offer systematic comparisons or adequately cover biotic, sewage treatment plant (STP), and complex global-scale fugacity models. This paper provides a comprehensive review of fugacity-based models used to simulate the environmental fate of POPs across local, regional, and global scales. Models are categorized by complexity—from basic frameworks (Levels I–IV, QWASI) to advanced systems (ChemRange, Globo-POP, CliMoChem)—with evaluations of their structural characteristics, strengths, and limitations. Special attention is given to the integration of biotic and STP models to enhance the analysis of pollutant behavior. Beyond theoretical insights, this review highlights practical applications of fugacity models in complex engineered systems. Future directions include the integration of high-resolution spatiotemporal data, development of universal model databases, improved model validation, consideration of extreme climate impacts, and incorporation of real-time monitoring, machine learning, and human activity data. Together, these advancements aim to strengthen the theoretical foundation and practical utility of fugacity modeling in environmental risk assessment and policy.