MPs in drinking water and beverages: Concentrations, characteristics and implications for human exposure

Microplastics (MPs), plastic particles between 1μm to 5 mm, are emerging contaminants of global concern due to their widespread environmental presence and potential health risks. Their detection in drinking water and beverages raises significant public health concerns, as ingestion represents a primary human exposure route. While research has had been extensively studied in marine environments, research on MPs presence in drinking water is still emerging, and even less is known about their occurrence in other beverages such as tea, coffee, soft drinks, and juices. This literature review aims to evaluate the occurrence, characteristics, and human exposure to MPs through drinking tap water, bottled water, and hot/cold beverages. A systematic review of studies published between 2014 and 2024 was conducted using four major science databases with strict inclusion/exclusion criteria to ensure methodological rigour. Key findings reveal notable variability in MPs concentrations across regions and beverage types, influenced by multiple factors including water sources, packaging materials, heat exposure, distribution networks, as well as analytical variability originating from different methodologies and reported size ranges. Reported MPs sizes in beverages ranged between <1 μm up to 5 mm, with a generally observed increase in abundance towards lower size ranges <50 μm. Fibres and fragments dominated the MPs shapes reported in the studied beverages with limited contribution from beads and pellets. Common polymers identified were polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE) and polyvinylchloride (PVC), which were frequently linked to water pipes and packaging materials for beverages; however, the lack of data distinguishing contributions from specific sources such as bottle caps versus bottle bodies. Estimated daily intakes (EDI) suggest children experience disproportionately higher exposure levels relative to their low body weight. This review underscores that beverages beyond water are underexplored; yet may contribute substantially to human exposure to MPs. We emphasize the urgent need for standardized MPs sampling and analytical methods to improve comparability, enable accurate exposure assessment, and inform public health guidelines.