Global energy inequality across energy types, expenditure groups, and consumption items

Understanding the relationship between household expenditure and energy use from a consumption and supply chain perspective is crucial to capturing direct household energy use and indirect energy use linked to various consumption items—often overlooked by studies focusing solely on direct energy—and to revealing the underlying patterns of global energy inequality across households. This study assesses the energy footprints across 201 household expenditure groups, seven final-use energy types, and 65 consumption items in each of 116 countries using a global energy- and expenditure-extended multi-regional input-output model for 2017. The Gini index for global energy footprints is 0.59, indicating a high level of energy inequality: the top 1% of households in 116 countries account for 14% of energy footprints, while the bottom 50% consumed only 13%. Substantial energy inequality is revealed both between and within countries. Less developed countries and regions generally exhibit greater inequality in per capita energy footprints between households compared to developed countries and regions. Energy intensity declines with higher expenditure, remaining higher in poorer regions and households. In richer regions, energy intensity is more evenly distributed across expenditure groups and overall lower than in developing regions. Accurately measuring global household energy footprints can help understand current energy inequality and guide future poverty and inequality reduction to promote a more just and equitable global society. Broader context: Understanding how household energy use varies across income levels—and addressing energy inequality—is central to achieving just and equitable development. Yet, most existing studies focus on national averages or direct household energy use, overlooking the energy embodied in consumed goods and services. This study addresses that gap by combining a global multi-regional input-output framework with energy consumption data and detailed household expenditure data for 201 income groups in each of 116 countries. Results reveal that indirect energy use dominates household energy footprints and contributes more to inequality than direct use in most countries. The top 1% of households account for 14% of global energy use, while the bottom 50% consume only 13%. Energy intensity declines with rising income but remains high in poorer regions. Differences in energy intensity across consumption items and countries underscore the need for targeted efficiency standards, improved infrastructure, and broader technology adoption. These findings highlight the importance of addressing consumption patterns and supply chains to support a more equitable energy future.